Chapter 1 Summary
Prior Knowledge Affects Learning
As the title of the book suggests, there are seven principles that help facilitate learning. The principles, which apply to all learning situations, are Prior Knowledge, Motivation, Social Interactions, Context, Experiences, Organization, and Practice (Ambrose, Bridges, DiPietro, Lovett, & Norman, 2010). Chapter one elaborates on Prior Knowledge. Interestingly enough, the chapter opens with two scenarios that reinforce the principle that prior knowledge can not only help, but may harm the learning process. What if a student's prior knowledge is inaccurate? What if it is in the wrong context, as seen in an example in which negative reinforcement was being seen as negative when it really is positive? Examples like these display how prior knowledge can actually hinder learning and are really important for an educator to keep in mind. We do not, however, want this to deter us from building upon prior knowledge in our teachings (Ambrose et al., 2010).
When used appropriately, prior knowledge can help a student make connections using their own experiences, including morals and beliefs, to learn (Vygotsky, 1978 ; National Research Council, 2000 ). The key is making those connections between new material and prior knowledge. Students may not intuitively know to draw from their prior experiences and it is our responsibility as educators to help activate that knowledge, which ultimately aids in learning and retention (Ambrose et al., 2010). I had an opportunity to help my stepson activate prior knowledge when helping him with his math homework last week. We were working on converting degrees to fractions. He got stuck when it came time to take our fraction (1/4) and convert it to match his data set (x/24). We paused and reviewed his prior knowledge of simplifying a fraction, after which he was able to connect the dots, use what he already knew to work backward, and solve the problem.
When used appropriately, prior knowledge can help a student make connections using their own experiences, including morals and beliefs, to learn (Vygotsky, 1978 ; National Research Council, 2000 ). The key is making those connections between new material and prior knowledge. Students may not intuitively know to draw from their prior experiences and it is our responsibility as educators to help activate that knowledge, which ultimately aids in learning and retention (Ambrose et al., 2010). I had an opportunity to help my stepson activate prior knowledge when helping him with his math homework last week. We were working on converting degrees to fractions. He got stuck when it came time to take our fraction (1/4) and convert it to match his data set (x/24). We paused and reviewed his prior knowledge of simplifying a fraction, after which he was able to connect the dots, use what he already knew to work backward, and solve the problem.
Research and Implications
What if, in the math homework example above, the child did not have sufficient prior knowledge to solve the equation? This leads me to the two types of knowledge, which are declarative and procedural. Declarative knowledge means you know the facts and can state them while procedural knowledge means a learner can apply the knowledge appropriately (Ambrose et al., 2010). I have seen this time and time again when delivering technical training. I always try to incorporate hands on experience so learners experience how to apply the steps that I am teaching them. This helps turn the declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. One example that really stands out from work is when we had system problems and learners could not get that hands on experience. We had to retrain everyone several months later, as they were unable to use the new software. They left the first class with declarative knowledge but that was not enough. The second training class was shorter but all hands on and everyone can successfully use the software now. The moral of the story is that we don't just need to assess a learner's prior knowledge, but also the type of prior knowledge.
Inappropriate Prior Knowledge
In addition to insufficient prior knowledge, we need to be aware that there is such a thing as inappropriate prior knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010). Information is contextual and, when put into the wrong context, can interfere with the learning process (Ambrose et al., 2010). For example, the word 'understand' has a different meaning in the courtroom than it does with the general public. As instructors, we not only need to help others activate what they already know but we also need to provide context around what we teach.
Inaccurate Prior Knowledge
Lastly, educators and students may be challenged with inaccurate prior knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010). What if the prior knowledge is wrong? This can be fairly simple to overcome or more complex, depending on whether the inaccurate prior knowledge can be easily course-corrected or is deeply rooted in broader concepts and ways of thinking (Ambrose et al., 2010). If the inaccurate knowledge is deeply rooted, it may take some time for students to override those beliefs. But it is possible, especially when teachers use a method called Bridging (Brown, 1992 ; Brown & Clement, 1989 ; Clement, 1993 ). The basic concept of bridging is taking prior knowledge and leading the learner to the new material in a logical way. Changing that deeply rooted inaccurate knowledge requires both patience and time (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Recommended Strategies
We now know that learners will have varying levels and degrees of prior knowledge, but how does the instructor know what that prior knowledge is? Is it best to talk to colleagues that worked with those learners in the past? Have students take a quiz or write an essay? Tell the students what skills they need to be successful in your course and have them give you their level of familiarity? Facilitate a brainstorming session? Have learners create a concept map? Remain on the lookout for patterns of error in their work? The answer is all of the above (Ambrose et al., 2010). Employing one or more of these methods can help the instructor determine not only the level or prior knowledge but the accuracy of that knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010). For example, let's explore talking to colleagues. We cannot assume that because something was on the syllabus and covered in a prior class that everyone learned it (Ambrose et al., 2010). Make sure to ask your colleague questions to determine what the students struggled with then incorporate review of those areas in your instruction (Ambrose et al., 2010). Alternatively, having students self-assess can be valuable as they will tell you whether they have simply heard of a term or concept, or if they can teach it back to you (Ambrose et al., 2010). I use the last method fairly often as a corporate trainer because I can easily spot trends amongst the sales force. This allows me to quickly identify patterns and address knowledge gaps.
Activating Prior Knowledge
Once familiar with prior knowledge, educators can use some tried and true methods for activating that prior knowledge when teaching new concepts. the methods described above for testing prior knowledge work well in also activating that knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010). Just remember to watch for inaccurate or inappropriate knowledge. Other methods include spelling out those connections between previous materials and calling out how the information relates to the new content, incorporating real life examples to help people relate to the material, and tasking students with forming a basis of what they are about to read prior to reading it (Ambrose et al., 2010). This last method not only causes them to activate prior knowledge but also use reasoning to move forward (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Strategies by Prior Knowledge Type
Since an educator needs to be on the lookout for insufficient knowledge, we also need to know how to address this aspect of prior knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010). First, sit down and determine exactly what prior knowledge the learners need to have to be successful in your course (Ambrose et al., 2010). Then, determine how widespread insufficient knowledge is within the group. If there is a gap amongst most of the class, then it is appropriate to devote class time to that topic (Ambrose et al., 2010). If there are only one or two students with insufficient knowledge, you may just need to give them a list of terms or some reading material to get caught up on their own (Ambrose et al., 2010).
Inappropriate Prior Knowledge
That covers insufficient prior knowledge but it is also important to help students identify inappropriate prior knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010). A great way to do this is to provide context around when a particular concept is applicable (Ambrose et al., 2010). Another way is to provide direction up front (Ambrose et al., 2010). For example, if you know most students get confused over a particular concept based on their prior knowledge, call that out up front so they are set up to succeed. Case in point - negative reinforcement is not negative but based on prior knowledge most learners would draw that conclusion. Next, be clear and provide guidance (Ambrose et al., 2010). A student with a strong background in creative writing will not succeed in technical writing unless the expectation is set up front. Lastly, set limits on the analogies that you use (Ambrose et al., 2010). Make sure students understand that it is not one size fits all.
Inaccurate Prior Knowledge
There are proven methods to help with inaccurate prior knowledge as well (Ambrose et al., 2010). Have students predict outcomes and then test them to prove it (Ambrose et al., 2010). If the test shows a different outcome than the prediction, that will clear up any inaccurate knowledge (Ambrose et al., 2010). Another way is to ask the student to back up their misconception, which in turn causes them to dig deeper, uncovering conflicting information and encouraging them to seek factual data (Ambrose et al., 2010). Lastly, remember that both time and patience are required and give them time to digest the information (Ambrose et al., 2010).
In summary, analyzing, testing, and correcting prior knowledge (when applicable) will set you and your students up to achieve amazing results.
References:
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C. & Norman, M. K. (2010). How Learning Works: 7 Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
National Research Council (2000) How People Learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of the higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: The Harvard University Press (Originally published 1930, New York: Oxford University Press).
Ambrose, S. A., Bridges, M. W., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M. C. & Norman, M. K. (2010). How Learning Works: 7 Research-Based Principles for Smart Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
National Research Council (2000) How People Learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of the higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: The Harvard University Press (Originally published 1930, New York: Oxford University Press).